Power Production - sources of power production

Force Production - wellsprings of intensity creation Fuel Coal, oil, flammable gas (or gas created from landfills), wood flames, and hydrogen power device innovation are on the whole instances of energizes, wherein the asset is devoured to discharge inalienable fiery properties, as a rule being combusted to produce heat vitality. Fills might be either sustainable (like wood or bio-fuel created from items, for example, corn) or non-inexhaustible (like coal or oil). Powers for the most part make squander results, some of which can be hurtful toxins. Geothermal The Earth creates a great deal of warmth while approaching its typical business, as underground steam and magma among others. The geothermal vitality created inside the Earths outside layer can be outfit and changed into different types of vitality, for example, power. Hydropower The utilization of hydropower includes utilizing the motor movement in water as it streams downstream, some portion of the ordinary water pattern of the Earth, to create different types of vitality, most eminently power. Dams utilize this property as a methods for creating power. This type of hydropower is called hydroelectricity. Waterwheels were an old innovation which additionally utilized this idea to produce motor vitality to run hardware, for example, a grain plant, however it was not until the formation of current water turbines that the rule of electromagnetic enlistment was utilized to create power. Sun powered The sun is the absolute most noteworthy wellspring of vitality to the planet Earth, and any vitality that it gives which isnt used to assist plants with developing or to warm the Earth is essentially lost. Sun oriented force can be utilized with sunlight based voltaic force cells to create power. Certain districts of the world get more straightforward daylight than others, so sun based vitality isn't consistently viable for all zones. Wind Present day windmills can move the active vitality of the air moving through them into different types of vitality, for example, power. There are some ecological worries with utilizing wind vitality, on the grounds that the windmills regularly harm winged creatures who might be going through the area. Atomic Certain components experience radioactive rot. Tackling this atomic vitality and changing it into power is one approach to produce generous force. Atomic force is disputable in light of the fact that the material utilized can be risky and resultant waste items are poisonous. Mishaps that happen at atomic force plants, for example, Chernobyl, are destroying to neighborhood populaces and conditions. All things considered, numerous countries have embraced atomic force as a noteworthy vitality elective. Rather than atomic splitting, where particles rot into littler particles, researchers are proceeding to contemplate doable methods of tackling atomic combination for power production.â Biomass Biomass isn't generally a different sort of vitality, to such an extent as a particular kind of fuel. It is created from natural waste items, for example, cornhusks, sewage, and grass clippings. This material contains remaining vitality, which can be discharged by copying it in biomass power plants. Since these waste items consistently exist, it is viewed as a sustainable asset.

The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Japan

Ivan Morris’ The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Japan is an examination and an endeavor to reestablish the nonexistent existence of Prince Genji in the exceptionally celebrated Lady Murasaki’s Genji Monogatari and, generally, to depict Japan’s magnificent, dug in, odd yet dynamic world. The original copy was both a wellspring of delight to the individuals who might need to appreciate the magnificence of writing and a decent wellspring of information with respect to the Land of the Rising Sun †its history and culture †subtleties that even history neglected to describe. This book has, without question, unveiled the most fascinating and achieved culture in our reality, thought about Japan’s old style time of marriage governmental issues and the tempestuous political flows of court life, the ascent of nobility, Buddhists’ and Confucians’ regulations of salvation and fleetingness, the interest for class and refinement, the jobs people play, far beyond women’s job in the male centric culture during their time. Genuinely, little was thought about the odd yet entertaining nation which was â€Å"divided into huge domains controlled by medieval baronies, commanded by military men who for longer than a century had kept the islands in a condition of practically interminable warfare,† (p. xxiii). There was at that point a settled religion, established in Buddhism and Confucianism. Strict pioneers are, by and large, affluent, incredible, and regularly used political impact that they, now and again, restrict with common experts in administering the regions. Common warriors likewise rose during the Heian time frame. In spite of the fact that, the West may have thought of their incomparable force since they are truly prepared, samurai warriors delighted in no eminence among the nobles. It was just later that they climbed, which in the end lead to taking force. The Heian age is undeniably viewed as the pinnacle of the Japanese magnificent court where sway lays upon the ruler. In any case, power was employed by blue-blooded families, especially the Fujiwara tribe. The head maintains domain over the vast majority of the region. In any case, he didn't have a lot of incomparability to lead with equivalent immovability over the entirety of this huge domain contrasted with the blue-bloods. The last sifted through into different positions. Also, it had been discernable that the basic factor in deciding an individual’s rank that time was the general status of one’s more distant family. As it were, inherited benefit is a staggering variable in one’s general status. This is the reason landed nobility would no doubt decide to wed those having a place in the elite for their own benefit and supported height. Inclination and information may empower somebody to progress somewhat, yet there was no place for social portability. The individuals from the Japanese court have, without a doubt, lived extravagant lives, worrying about centerpieces beside their essential control of overseeing terrains and came to rely upon an arrangement of private bequests (shoen) for incomes. An incomprehensible actuality of the state of the lower class was additionally appeared in the gem and was seen by Morris. Oblivious laborers in their general public produce about the entirety of the country’s riches yet generally are encountering a soiled and flimsy life. The individuals from the supreme families set land tillers to work to improve themselves as opposed to help the entire nation. For sure, in the political sense, the period is known for the tallness of control of the respectable families. Then again, Heian Japan is likewise noted for its faction of magnificence. At the end of the day, it is a culture that has put accentuation on â€Å"beautiful things† or the â€Å"splendid things. † History would disclose to us that the blue-bloods, especially the Fujiwara family, cultivated a court culture which give quite a bit of their time on refined tastes and exquisite stylish interests. Since the high society Heian life were accepted to be limited in their royal residences, people once in a while adventure the world outside their homes, â€Å"almost claustrophobic in nature, and carrying on with an indoor life to an enormous extent,† (p. 167), the greater part of them had adequate relaxation time, giving them sufficient opportunity to create aestheticness. Subsequently, they became incredible benefactors of verse, painting, calligraphy, music, moving, and scene cultivating. Verse, truth be told, got one of the most significant aptitudes to create. The authority of its method was important in both social trades and formal lovely get-togethers. The focal figure in the Tale of Genji, to whom this book was ascribed, stayed remotely from his family members and would trade notes, messages, or sonnets once they get the opportunity to see one another, particularly during family social occasions. Other extra time exercises incorporate portraying and painting delineated in Morris’ record of Genji’s representations of the ocean and the slopes, during the Prince’s expulsion in Suma, and come to an end result that â€Å"they were practically all novice artists,† (p. 186). A mainstream type of drawing comprised of representations of people. Apparently these portrayals were suggestive (p. 86), be that as it may, there were no different subtleties given that will prove reality of this case. Be that as it may, what is clear is the impact of the Chinese even in expressions of the human experience. These depictions uncover to us a specific age and human advancement of the uncommonly complex Japan †a piece of the world away from the development of the West, a nation so shocking yet extremely rich with regards to workmanship, writing, and culture. The amazing feeling of style, as Morris noted, and the degree to which stylish magnificence fill in for moral goodness both characterized the quality of this old society. The other component that ought to be thought about during the Heian Period is the situation of ladies in the general public. The world before is, verifiably, man centric. Ladies are viewed as second rate compared to male; a minor shadow to male’s presence; living without opportunity; living without name. In any case, Morris had the option to call attention to women’s position in the general public that time. To realize that ladies in Heian Japan were financially free, or if nothing else semi-reliant, astonished him. He included that they likewise advantage from complete subjection from the tyrannical sex. This would recommend that Heian ladies, insofar as they are monetarily steady, can do whatever it is that satisfies them, without men directing it. The facts demonstrate that ladies are not exactly partnered strategically, yet they had the option to do well out of the opportunities that the Western ladies couldn't appreciate. In spite of the fact that, ladies were all things considered marked as mediocre, they could legitimately acquire and even own properties, just as connect with themselves in a wide range of comfortable exercises. Truth be told, the greater part of Heian exposition essayists were ladies. Woman Murasaki, who composed the Genji Monogatari, alongside other incredibly famous authors thrived during this period. As indicated by Morris, a considerable lot of the ladies at that point had their own homes and being monetarily autonomous, were allowed to have such relations as they wished and furthermore to end them. Some portion of their opportunity is that they could decline their kindness to a man,; they could keep him pausing; they could send him away whenever; or supplant him by another sweetheart. This opportunity was seen by Morris as indiscriminate, opportunity that he himself couldn't portray during his time. The general public that encompasses them is loaded up with male incomparability however ladies in this period had their very own specialty †an alcove that they know can fulfill them here and there, despite the furious guidelines of direct during that time. Morris likewise worried the mind boggling connection among people of this milieu. Men can possibly talk with ladies if the last were behind window ornaments. What's more, there were even characters who lived separated from their female family members and would see them once in a while. Morris (p. 167) saw this as an overstated instance of custom with respect to the connection of people. Incomprehensibly, however, there were a few characters like Prince Niou who hit the hay with Naka no Kimi on their first gathering and for Kashiwagi to do likewise with Prince Nyosan before they have addressed one another (p. 167). This gives us the feeling that ladies are again classed by their monetary potential. Ladies can have opportunity just on the off chance that they can stay aware of the difficulties opportunity involves. Ladies can have their decisions conceded inasmuch as they can adapt to the results of their choices. In Morris’ record of the Shining Prince’s world, we had the option to have a brief look at a heaven situated at one piece of the globe. Their perfect customs, profoundly lofty legislative issues, the ascent and fall of nobility, excellent imaginative articulation, the quest for tastefulness, and entrancing writing have been one of the world’s magnificent artworks ever cut throughout the entire existence of humankind. Generally speaking, Morris’ endeavor to talk about the story of an Eastern nation was a fearless undertaking to beat Western obliviousness. He had the option to connect unmistakable societies, delivering understanding and high respect of extraordinary human advancements, and thusly, limiting lack of concern. There may have been slips by in the judgment of Morris with respect to Japan’s secrets, in any case, some way or another his work had the option to give an image of Heian culture of blue-blooded rule, shocking reverence for magnificence and advancement, lastly for the delineation of the fascinating jobs people played during that time of old style Japan. For sure, Morris has created a gem that won't just engage you about Japan’s beautiful secrets however include an intriguing story of the flowering of an old human advancement.

ETH Zürich, hier komme ich!

ETH Zürich, hier komme ich! Im studying abroad next semester at ETH Zurich in Switzerland! (Or more officially, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich!) It all happened very quickly. I first heard about the program during the summer from an email sent out to Course 6 Class of 2019. My friend had also sent it out to a group chat, and we all drooled at the thought of spending Spring 2018 abroad, especially because Switzerland and chocolate. My friends and I had considered taking part in the Cambridge-MIT Exchange for the entirety of Junior year, but the program was canceled just last year. I had been on the lookout for other options, and ETH seemed to be the perfect fit. An exchange through Course 2 had been in place for the past few years, but this would be the first time through Course 6. How it all began There was an info session mid-September, and the application was due within the week. I promptly asked my summer UROP supervisor for a letter of recommendation, and also sent an email to my advisor. In the following week, I had an interview with the Assistant Dean of Global Education at MIT and Anne Hunter, the Course 6 Undergraduate Administrator. The following day, I got an email with an offer for a spot in the exchange. I had less than a week to decide. Indeed, I was incredibly excited and confided with my family and friends. But getting excited about the idea of it was much different from actually committing to it. I spent the next few days really thinking through the offer. The dean arranged a meet and greet with two exchange students from ETH currently spending the semester at MIT, as well as two MIT students who did the exchange last spring. The Head of the Student Exchange office at ETH was also present to answer all of our questions. But spending a semester abroad would mean one fewer at MIT, one fewer with my friends here. I would be one semester removed from all my extracurriculars, one semester removed from my carefully planned out courseroad. I would have to find a new training environment and coaches if I wanted to continue my skating career. I would have to make new friends, find a new community and living group, and adjust to an entirely different culture, environment, and language. It would, all in all, be easier and the path of least resistance to stay at MIT, take the classes I already have planned, knock off my course requirements and take the lingering Bio GIR I have been putting off, continue my work in my clubs and extracurriculars, and avoid having to uproot my entire life and routine, friendships and communities, all the things that Ive worked so hard to cultivate the last 2.5 years here at the MIT. Inertia is real. Though a few Course 2 students had previously done the exchange, no one from Cours e 6 had. We would be the guinea pigs. Yet, this would be a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. My UROP supervisor likened ETH as the MIT of Europe. Albert Einstein studied there! I would be able to meet and work alongside an entire new group of students and professors, and have a chance to study and immerse myself in a new environment, one that is just as engaging and intellectually stimulating as MIT. I will finally have an excuse to learn German, and travel all around Switzerland and Europe as well while Im at it. So I went for it. Five others also went for it, four from Course 6 and another from Course 2. ETH and Zurich mood Within the next few days, Ive received a slew of emails and forms and documents from ETH. Then, it was the challenge of putting together a study plan and pre-registering for classes. There isnt an official schedule released for next semester, and there arent any previous Course 6 exchanges to rely on for help and advice. Though we do have a group chat for all of us studying abroad next semester, were all just as lost as the next, but doing our best to be as resourceful as possible. There is a process of getting our credits to transfer over, but itll be work on our end to petition for those credits once were back at MIT in the fall. Luckily, we do have the assistance and guidance of two professors at MIT, Professor Chris Terman (who taught 6.004 when I took it last semester) and Professor Stefanie Jegelka who did her PhD at ETH throughout the process. Credits work a bit differently at ETH, and most students typically take more classes but of fewer units than at MIT. Generally, it should work out to be about the equivalent amount of work and class time as the average MIT workload. However, at ETH there is more of an emphasis on the final examination, and less of an emphasis on psets and assignments â€" which can be good or bad depending on how you look at it. More free time during the semester, vs. more chances to boost your grade and less pressure on the final. Also, there are oral exams at ETH (me: ?!?!?). 2/3 of our coursework has to come from the department we are in, so similar to MIT, there is an focus on exploring other departments and the humanities at ETH. Luckily, most of their advanced undergraduate (their undergrad is 3 years) and Masters classes are taught in English. I planned for: (1) Ubiquitous Computing, a class on wireless sensors and components like RFID and bluetooth; (2) Learning and Intelligent Systems, which is a mix between 6.036 and 6.867; (3) Case Studies from Practice, which offers real-world technology cases and projects from partner companies; (4) 3D Vision, a version of computer vision; (4) User Interface Engineering, a Masters class that combines 6.815 and 6.036; (5) Human-Computer Interaction, a seminar on HCI topics; (6) Cognition in Architecture Designing Orientation and Navigation for Building Users, a seminar at the intersection of Course 9 and Course 4; and finally, (7) German, the most beginner version. Yes, its a mouthful, and I am currently planned for much beyond the typical credit load. Were recommended to take between 20-25 ETH credits, and my study plan totals 31. Im also planning to take a 2 week German intensive language course before the semester starts. There were even more classes I wanted to take: one in entrepreneurship, another in information security, and one in computer graphics and vision. Even then, I will drop one or two of the classes I have on my study plan once I get a feel for them. Im hoping to get most of the classes and credits to transfer over, particularly to count for Course 6 AUS or EECS electives. We were also told we could get humanities to transfer over as HASS-E credit. Regardless, Im really looking forward to these classes. Part of my extensive study plan research spreadsheet Until then, I do have more forms to fill out and several more weeks to figure out the rest of the logistics. Am I ready? Click to take a look!   Ja, you bet!

Interview On The Interview, Conducted On Multiple Settings...

The interview was conducted in multiple settings and at different times. Mr. D and I had to schedule multiple sessions with each other because of our busy schedules. I also had to ask him more questions as the assignment changed over the course of this semester. We had the interview over the phone a few times and once in-person. The interview that was in-person took place at a restaurant in Greenville, SC. I offered to buy him lunch for doing the interview for me. Looking over the identity wheel and my notes from the interview, I noticed that Mr. D acknowledged certain parts of his identity much more than other parts of his identity. Mr. D is a newly opened bisexual male. He talked about this part of his identity the most throughout our conversations. He talked about how he was a target and how that made him feel. He discussed how his newly found identity was a problem for his wife and that was one of the reasons they got a divorce. How expressed some anger and sadness towards his e x-wife for how she handled his change in sexual orientation. He felt like she devalued him because he had those bisexual thoughts. He also talked about how his religion played a critical role in this decision to open up about his sexuality and accept it. Mr. D is Jewish and the Jewish faith do not believe in homosexuality. Jewish faith states that homosexuality is against the law in the Torah, according to Mr. D. He said that for many years he had those thoughts about both sexes but heShow MoreRelatedThe Influence Of Sampling Methods In Schools1340 Words   |  6 Pagesschool resource officers. Instruments For this study, in depth interviews, field observation, audio recordings and school documents will be used. Creswell (2003) suggests that when using qualitative research, the use of observations, interviews, documents and audio should be considered. 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Plato’s Forms Free Essays

Eric Morin 103317083 01-26-285 Professor L. Buj Jan 16, 2011 Plato’s Criticism On Deceptive Forms Plato’s critique of art operates on two levels, the ontological and the moral. Both levels are interpreted within disdain taste as Plato proposes that the banishment of art could actually bring fourth a closer connection between humanity and truth. We will write a custom essay sample on Plato’s Forms or any similar topic only for you Order Now His argument against the existence of art as well as its functioning purposes will be further discussed in this paper. Plato’s ontological view on the existence of art looks deep within the nature as well as its overall properties rather bitterly. Plato’s attack on art does not merely constitute visual art, but rather holds a more expansive scope reaching into literature and especially poetry. For Plato, art is accountable for multiple negative influences, which affect all audiences who try to interpret it. These influences are what Plato believes hinders humanity towards aspiring truth. Art for Plato receives negative attention at the moment of creation. Plato believes that the thoughts processed by the creator and/or artist are far from original and are alternatively imitations of the real world hich are themselves distant from the ideal Forms. These ideal Forms consist of the ultimate paradigms in our universe containing truth and 2 absolute wholeness, thus proposing a problem for Plato. These copies of copies are referred to as mimesis. During the grandeur search of truth, mimesis serves the audience deceit and alarmingly leads them farther from the ideal Forms. As mentioned in the text, â€Å"Because mimesis prese nts us with an inferior copy of a copy, poetry takes its listeners away from rather than toward the ideal Forms† (Leitch 43). The hypocrisy surrounding literature proves to be troublesome for Plato on a multitude of levels. In the search for completeness, art not only fails to provide insight toward truth but rather, is actually lying to you. This mimetic stance held within the nature of art is believed to be nothing more than fabrication. Plato maintains his argument by stating that as the audience is deceptively reeled into a degraded mind state, truth is less obtainable. Introduced in the text, â€Å"Because [Literature] stories are fictional, made up, literature is dangerous; it roduces only lies† (43). Plato not only bashes art on an ontological level, but also finds problems morally. During deception and degradation through imitation within text, Plato analyzes the problems art has within its nature and relates that to the morality of audience. He argues that if art is further removing oneself from the truth, than it cannot be in the best interest of man. Thus, banishment of art would be the on ly way to restore deception and appease humanity. 3 Plato begins by focusing on the dangerous elements of art and its affect on young minds. His argument states, â€Å"Now, do you appreciate that the most important stage of any enterprise is the beginning, especially when something young and sensitive is involved? † (46). In this part of the text, Plato is trying to explain that not only is the young mind fragile enough to easily fall into this created trap of deceit, but also that ruining the quest for truth at a young age brings upon negative consequences for all of humanity. Argued furthermore, â€Å"No young person is to hear stories which suggest that were he to commit the vilest of crimes †¦ he wouldn’t be doing anything out of the rdinary, but would simply be behaving like the first and greatest gods† (47). Here Plato is arguing that the falsehood within stories can fantasize young minds into ultimately developing enhanced personas, which escalates into degradation of truth in reality. Plato further extends his argument on art and morality into the minds of all humans. Since art is of a de ceitful nature according to Plato, it cannot undertone any good found within the text but is instead considered the primary fault within literature. Thus, the deception in which the audience resorts to is ultimately proposed as egative and unneeded. Different from a beneficial spoken lie, Plato states about literature, â€Å"All I’m saying is that no one is happy at being 4 lied to and deceived in his mind about the facts† (51). One of Plato’s biggest moral issues with art explores the depiction of human kind in literature. He believes that in order to truly display characteristics of a character we are not only mending the emotions and feelings to suit the text itself but for our own personal capacity. This sort of mutilation of character not only revives the notion of eception within literature but again bringing treason to our own reality. By distorting the character, we would be digging through created deceit as well as misinterpreting the true meaning of wh at was intended. Plato not only rejects our created distortion, but also feels as though the author creates this misinterpretation in a deceptive way. As Plato addresses, â€Å"What we’d claim, I imagine, is that poets and prose-writers misrepresent people in extremely important ways† (58). A real life example of artwork that could be examined and placed under Plato’s critical thinking rests in Versailles. There, artist Jeff Koons has created a replica of an inflatable lobster that hangs down from the ceiling for all to see. The lobster seems to be created as though it is soft to touch and friendly to the eyes. Already our senses have been deceived. As Plato would primarily analyze the creationist, we find that Jeff 5 Koons has not only produced a copy of a copy, but adds double the mimetic stages. Plato would argue that Jeff’s original thought has come from an ideal Form, followed by his initial drawing, then an addition of computer enhancement, and lastly interpreted and actually reated by fellow minds in his workshop. This notion sets the idea that Jeff is rather far from being the creationist, which is deceptive to audience in itself. Plato’s ontological stance would prove testy and unacceptable, as mimetic deceit is thoroughly prevalent within the whole of this piece. Plato would then examine the piece of art and relate it to morality. As this specific piece hangs do wn appearing soft and inflatable, it as well is deceitful in itself. Made out of metal, the lobster looms above the heads of audiences worldwide. Confusing to our senses, he would isapprove the artworks influence and be especially concerned for child observers. Plato would believe that not only is the nature of this piece deceptive, but our outtake of what we have witnessed would follow suit. In all of this deception, Plato would argue that artwork does indeed lead humanity farther from the truth and most importantly from primary ideal Forms, thus resulting in banishment being the primal response. 6 Works Cited Leitch, Vincent B. , ed. The Norton Anthology of Theory Criticism. New York, NY: Norton, 2010. Print. How to cite Plato’s Forms, Papers

Law in the Information Age 2.0

Introduction Many jurisdictions around the world have different laws regarding defamation. These laws protect people from wrongful representation through the publication of defamatory, slanderous, or harmful information.1 Most civil law jurisdictions around the world treat defamation cases, not as civil cases, but as criminal cases.2Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Law in the Information Age 2.0 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, some advocates for freedom of speech (including the United Nations Commission on Human rights) have not supported the association of defamation cases with criminal offences. In fact, the United Nations Commission on Human right believes that the conceptualization of defamation as a criminal offence violates people’s freedom of expression as stipulated under Article 19 of the International Covenant on civil and political Rights.3 There is a debate in Australia regar ding the role of defamation laws to protect the freedom of expression and people’s reputation from unfair damage.4 Recent changes in technology have brought more attention to the above debate because technological development has redefined the way information dissipates in the society. The increased use of new technology has created new concerns regarding whether it is critical to change the legal framework and practices surrounding defamation laws and regulation, or not. This paper proposes that Australia needs to create a new legal framework to address new challenges brought by web 2.0 services. Issues of jurisdiction, privacy, and enforcement appear in this debate. Finally, this paper shows that Australia’s defamation laws are too strict to maintain a proper balance between the freedom of expression and defamation. Consequently, this paper proposes the creation of a practicable balance between the freedom of expression and defamation laws. Freedom of Speech Australi ans do not enjoy the same legal protection regarding the freedom of speech as other developed countries do.5 The lack of proper legal protection of the freedom of speech in Australia has prompted some observers to advance the opinion that the freedom of speech only exists to the extent that there is no law restricting it.6 To this extent, people have challenged Australian courts to stipulate if the government’s effort to restrict freedoms of speech is valid, or not.7Advertising Looking for research paper on constitutional law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Legal Restrictions on Free Speech Albeit the freedom of speech remains an important freedom in not only Australia but also the rest of the world, a few legal restrictions on free speech exists. One such restriction is defamation. Defamation: defamation is a legal restriction to the freedom of speech because it curtails the ability of people to express their opinions freely. In the past, defamation laws in Australia varied with every state.8 However, recent legal developments, which occurred in 2005, created a standard application of defamation laws throughout the country.9 Before the introduction of the uniform defamation laws, the main legal defences in defamation proceedings varied across different states. The common legal defences were truth, fairness, and the publication of accurate reports of public interest. Nonetheless, unlike America, there has not been any public figure test to evaluate the application of the new defamation laws in Australia. For a long time, some people have perceived defamation laws as a threat to the freedom of the media and the freedom to engage in political debates. This opinion prevails because some people and groups use defamation laws to prevent or intimidate the media, individuals, and groups against speaking about issues, or even people. Since the courts define defamation laws geographically, the introductio n of technology has complicated the application and enforcement of these laws.10 The main area of contention is the ability of technology to transcend geographical borders. For example, a recent case by Dow Jones and Company Inc. v Gutnick case involved the geographical application of defamation laws in two different countries.11 In detail, the case involved the use of materials regarding Victoria, but downloaded from America. Dow Jones and Company claimed that Australia’s defamation laws were not applicable here, but Gutnick claimed that Australian laws were applicable in the case. The court ruled that the case was subject to Victoria’s defamation laws and not America’s defamation laws. From the above case, it is difficult to apply or enforce defamation laws on online content because they do not have a geographic jurisdiction.12 This difficulty in enforcing and applying defamation laws sharply contrasts previous concerns regarding defamation cases in television or print media. In other words, it was easier to enforce and apply defamation laws across various forms of conventional media because traditional media platforms are structured and easier to control.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Law in the Information Age 2.0 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, the introduction of uniform defamation laws has introduced new defences against defamation, which makes it easier for people to defend themselves against defamation cases. For example, truth alone is now enough legal defence against defamation proceedings.13 Therefore, people do not have to experience the burden of further proving that their subject matter was of public interest. A new addition to the new defamation cases stem from the stable legal environment that the new laws have created. For example, it is now easier to use uniform criteria for identifying defamation cases.14 Therefore, subjects of defamation cases, and the people who generate information, understand the definition of defamatory materials and any legal defences that they can use in legal proceedings. Through these legal advances, the law reintroduces the common law approach to understanding defamatory cases and claims. Despite the legal advancements of defamation laws, Australian defamation laws are more oppressive than other democratic societies. However, it is crucial to say that Australian defamation laws have improved since the courts acknowledged the freedom of political communication. Nevertheless, the Australian law still fails to provide proper legal protection against liabilities that may arise even when authors take necessary caution to communicate issues of public concern. One issue, which proponents of free speech use to fight defamation law, is the deterrent created by these laws to engage in free speech because of the excessive costs associated with litigation.15 Usually, the costs of litigation are very high (millions of dollars). Similarly, the costs of penalties are equally high (hundreds of thousands of dollars). However, the introduction of uniform defamation laws has created a new cap on the awarding of legal damages ($250,000).16 The court exceeds this cap only under aggravated circumstances. The excesses of Australia’s defamation laws manifest in a recent court ruling, where the court ordered Google to pay damages amounting to $208,000 to an entertainment promoter (Milorad Trkulja), who Goggle linked to gangster activities in Melbourne.17 Trkulja claimed that Google wrongfully published information on its online platform by associating his image with gangster and mob activities. Therefore, whenever people searched for Trkulja’s name, they would find his name associated with gangster activities in Australia. Trkulja claimed that most of his businesses depended on his public image and therefore, the slanderous depiction of his persona as a gangster mob l eader dented his image. He consequently claimed that he had suffered severe damages from the publication of slanderous articles online.Advertising Looking for research paper on constitutional law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Google claimed that it only availed information from other people (it did not write them). Google also claimed that it innocently published such materials not because of malice, but rather, as an act to provide what other authors had written about Trkulja. However, the court ruled against Google and found the internet giant guilty of defamation. The Court claimed that Google never acted on Trkulja’s concern since 2009. The Court similarly perceived Google’s role in the entire scandal as an agent of defamation (as libraries and other media agents have done in the past). The court made this ruling for purposes of Australian defamation laws. Based on the above case, the strictness of Australian defamation laws on internet content and information generation is severe. In fact, the above case shows the capacity of the law in pursuing third party agents, who are not the original authors of media content. In the above case, the court found Google guilty of having the intentio n to publish slanderous media content, based on the product of its search request process. For being an agent of defamation by providing slanderous information to the public, the court ordered it to pay damages. Therefore, through this case, it is easy to see the scope of the Australian defamation laws and the threat it poses, not only to people who generate information, but also to those who distribute them. To this extent, Australian defamation laws not only threaten the freedom of expression but also threaten individuals involved in the dissemination of slanderous information. Nonetheless, the new legal provisions in Australia’s defamation laws have eliminated exemplary and excessively punitive damages in civil proceedings that involve defamation claims. Despite these legal advancements, it is still too early to establish if the new laws will protect the rights of authors who publish or write materials. Mainly, the way the courts approach this matter defines how effective the new laws will be. Restrictions on Information Creators Broadly, Australian information generators have enjoyed some freedom when reporting or writing about different social issues. However, during war times, the government limits this freedom. In fact, recent years have seen an increase in the number of attempts that the government has tried to limit the freedoms of expression through legal statutes that have censored the media. For example, in 2006, the government successfully closed an internet website that created a satire of the Prime Minister’s website. The government shut down the website after citing concerns about intellectual property. A few years later, the government equally closed a television comedy show on ABC, which it perceived to condone antigovernment sentiments. The vocal announcement by a government senator regarding the existing conflict of interest by one of the show’s co-host, who appeared in political campaigns, preceded attempts to shut dow n the show. Similarly, when these events occurred, ABC network also announced that it had abandoned plans to publish an autobiography about Allan Jones, who was a friend of the government. Accusations of defamation surrounded the abandonment of the book launch plan because ABC feared that the publication of the book might lead to a change in the public perception of the subject. These are a few examples of the government’s attempt to use defamation to limit free speech. Contempt of Court Normally, people are discouraged from talking about court matters because their remarks or comments may mean a fair trial would not occur. Therefore, the principle of contempt prevents people from talking about matters that are before the courts. This way, the courts prevent the occurrence of a public/media trial. Some information that may be considered prejudicial include the publication of details of prior trial, creation of an adverse impression of the accused, making statements about the guilt or innocence of the accused, and the identification of an accused person (when the identification of the accused is a problem). In Mustard v Woodside Energy (a big gas company) case, Ms. Mustard launched a sexual harassment claim against her former company for sidelining her in professional duties, after taking a maternity leave. Initially, Mustard was a very valued employee who held a senior position at Woodside Energy. In fact, she supervised most of the commercial contracts for the company.18 This claim prompted Woodside Energy to pay her $170,000 in damages. However, the case quickly turned into a defamation suit against Woodside Energy when Mustard went public after claiming that the sexual harassment case against her company ended. In a rejoinder, the company sent a press statement claiming that the suit was not finalised, and that the case was still ongoing. Afterwards, Mustard filed a case in the federal court when both parties failed to agree on the details of the iss ue. In the case, Mustard sought $50,000 in damages from here former company (for defamation) and a letter of apology from here employer as well. Mustard claimed that the company had made defamatory statements against her, during the sexual harassment case, and at a company seminar in 2010. After a preliminary assessment of the case, both parties agreed on a private settlement, which required both parties not to disclose their terms of agreement. This provision made it impossible to disclose further details surrounding the case. This case highlights an example of how the law of contempt acts as a way to limit the freedoms of expression because the company did not want Ms. Mustard to engage in further discussions about the case. To this extent, the company used the law of contempt to limit Mustard’s freedom of expression. It is therefore difficult to know any further details surrounding the case. Some people use the above legal provisions to curtail the freedom of free speech. Therefore, it has become increasingly difficult for people to publish media content about matters that are before the court. People can use this legal provision to prevent public debate concerning issues they want to conceal, by simply saying the matter is prejudicial. However, public concern may be a defence in such situations. In fact, as legal experts would say, it is difficult to invoke such a defence if the matter closely touches on the actual subject of the matter. Therefore, broadly, the law of contempt prevents public trials of incidental or unintended remarks, as opposed to the prevention of public trials regarding specific issues in a trial. Censorship and Obscenity Some people use censorship and obscenity concerns as restrictions to the freedom of speech. These restrictions are contained in Australia’s criminal law, which stipulates that the publication of indecent or obscene materials amount to a criminal act.19 However, the main legal problem surrounding the appl ication of this law is the lack of proper definition regarding what constitutes an indecent or obscene material. Consequently, the courts usually depend on traditional tests to determine indecency or obscenity. Community standards regarding this classification often act as the standard of measure. The court receives few cases regarding obscenity and indecency, but the few prosecutions do not undermine the number of cases that law enforcers have filed against people who publish obscene or indecent materials. Often, many people have taken private decisions to withdraw or regulate their media content so that they do not face such legal actions. The most recent case involving the use of obscenity as a limitation of free speech occurred when the government seized a book of photographs by Robert Mapplethorpe in South Australia. The Classification Board thereafter reclassified the contents of the book.20 The Catholic Church had similarly tried to prevent the National Gallery of Victoria fr om publishing the Serrano Photograph, Piss Christ. This case reintroduced the notion of blasphemous libel, which many people thought was obsolete. The court reviewed the matter by considering if blasphemy constituted part of the laws of Victoria. The court did not finalise this issue. The classifications of media content constitute the most comprehensive form of regulation of speech or expression. Often, the principle of classification aims to determine the age appropriateness of media content. The underlying principle here outlines the ability of adults to discuss, see, and talk about any matter, but limits the opportunities for the exposure of adult content to children.21 However, the internet age has transcended these traditional classifications because minors equally access information the same way adults do.22 Through this development, it is vital to re-examine the legal framework for the classification of media contents. Interestingly, countries, which have tried to re-examine their internet regulation laws, such as, America, have received backlash from people who want to protect the gains of the First Amendment.23 Therefore, restrictions on media content are quickly gaining the tag of a government’s attempt to regulate free speech. Conclusion Australia’s defamation laws and the freedom of speech clash. Even though there needs to be e careful balance between defamation laws and freedom of speech, this balance has not always been ideal. There is a strong weakness in the protection of freedom of speech in Australia because of the lack of a strong legal framework that the courts can use. Consequently, compared to other developed nations, Australia’s protection of the freedom of speech is relatively weak. To this extent, the government has limited the freedom of speech through directives and similar legal provisions limiting people’s scope to express their opinions. The closure of an internet website mimicking the Prime ministerâ €™s official website provides reasonable evidence of the limitation of the freedom of speech in Australia. The expansive scope of Australia’s defamation laws also stifles public debate concerning different issues because, as the Trkulja v Google case shows, Australia’s defamation laws victimises not only those who generate information but also agents who distribute this information. The wide scopes of Australia’s defamation laws therefore create an intimidating environment to individuals who generate information because they always feel threatened by the fear of litigation. To this extent, defamation laws are insensitive to information that is availed to the public, even when authors take proper caution when distributing such information. The harsh defamation laws do not however underscore the numerous legal arguments, which people who want to stifle public debate can use. Defamation laws already pose a limitation to people who would want to engage freely in public debates. The law of contempt and concerns about indecency and obscenity also poses significant challenges to the exercise of free speech. The Mustard v Woodside Energy case already shows how the law of contempt stifled public debate concerning the case. Comprehensively, therefore, there is little protection from Australia’s defamation laws concerning free speech. The courts therefore need to provide more legal protection to free speech crusaders so that there is a strong balance between free speech rights and defamation laws. Similarly, the legal framework surrounding defamation cases also needs to be reviewed to address new concerns brought by online communication, such as, privacy concerns, jurisdictional concerns (as shown in the Dow Jones and Company Inc. v Gutnick case) and enforcement concerns (deregulation of the internet). Annotated Bibliography Agencies 2012, Google fined in Australia defamation case, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asiapacific/2012/11/20121112 521157975.html. Agencies (2012) explain the rigidity of Australia’s defamation laws in cases involving free speech. Banks, A 2012, Woodside defamation dispute resolved, http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/breaking/15717556/woodside-defamation-dispute-resolved/. Banks (2012) explains the use of the law of contempt to stifle public debate. His article highlights a case involving the use of the law of contempt to limit the freedom of speech. Blitt, R 2011, The Bottom up Journey of â€Å"Defamation of Religion† from Muslim States to the United Nations, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, London. Blitt (2011) focuses on the debate surrounding the implementation of defamation laws and its limitations on the freedom of expression. His article shows the criticisms regarding defamation laws. Communications Law Centre 2012, Free speech and defamation pre 2010, http://www.law.uts.edu.au/comslaw/factsheets/archivedfactsheets/freespeechanddefamationpre2010.html. Communications Law C entre (2012) highlights how several legal provisions in Australia limit free speech. Doyle, C 2005, Privacy Law in Australia. Federation Press, Sydney. The scope of this article focuses on privacy laws and their clash with free speech. Electronic Frontiers Australia 2006, Defamation Laws the Internet, https://www.efa.org.au/Issues/Censor/defamation.html#cases. Electronic Frontiers Australia (2006) focuses on how the internet has affected defamation laws in Australia. Fryd, H 2012, Scandalous!: 50 Shocking Events You Should Know About, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, San Francisco. Fryd (2012) highlights different cases concerning past legal events pitting individuals and groups against the government. He shows how the Australian government used obscenity as a legal provision to limit free speech. Greyson, D 2007, ‘GLBTQ content in comics/graphic novels for teens’, Collection Building, Vol. 26 No, 4, pp. 130 – 134. This article highlights how media content classificat ion as a limitation of free speech. Hannabuss, S 2008, ‘Key Concepts in Law’, Library Review, Vol. 57 No. 7, pp. 554 – 555. Hannabuss (2008) explains the scope of defamation and its constituents. He explores what defamation entails. Hannabuss, S 2010, ‘Understanding Privacy’, Library Review, Vol. 59 No. 7, pp. 562 – 563. Hannabuss (2010) highlights the conflict of defamation laws and its association with privacy laws. Harpwood, V 2008, Modern Tort Law, Taylor Francis, London. Harpwood (2008) explains the development of defamation laws in Australia since 2005. Melkonian, H 2011, Defamation, Libel Tourism and the Speech Act of 2010: The First Amendment Colliding with the Common Law, Cambria Press, New York. This article focuses on the conflict of defamation laws with the first amendment (safeguarding the freedom of speech). Nzenza-Campbell, R 2004, ‘Essential Law for Information Professionals’, Library Management, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp . 239 – 239. This article explains how punitive defamation laws in Australia limit free speech. O’Neill, N 2004, Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights Law in Australia, Federation Press, Sydney. O’neil (2004) explains the clash between human rights law and defamation law. Perry, P 1986, ‘The Law and Defamation: An Australian Case’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 9 – 11. This article explains how Australian defamation laws worked before their reform in 2005. Sawer, M 2009, Australia: The State of Democracy, Federation Press, Sydney. Sawer (2009) explains the new implications of defamation laws in Australia. Sells, B 2006, ‘Recent developments in internet defamation law’, Journal of International Trade Law and Policy, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1 – 17. Sells (2006) explains how online developments have affected defamation laws. Scientific United Nations Educational 2011, Freedom of Connection, Freedom of Expression: Th e Changing Legal and Regulatory Ecology Shaping the Internet, UNESCO, Paris. This article explains how the internet has redefined the interaction between defamation and the new freedoms experienced through unregulated internet. Stoney, M 2003, ‘The problems of jurisdiction to e-commerce – some suggested strategies’, Logistics Information Management, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 74 – 80. Stoney (2003) focuses on the jurisdictional concerns arising from the application of defamation laws in the information age. Wyatt, A 2011, ‘Copyright concerns triggered by web 2.0 uses’, Reference Services Review, Vol. 39 No, 2, pp. 303 – 317. Wyatt (2011) focuses on how web 2.0 introduces copyright issues and redefines the application of defamation laws across different jurisdictions. References Agencies 2012, Google fined in Australia defamation case, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asiapacific/2012/11/20121112521157975.html. Banks, A 2012, Woodside defamation di spute resolved, http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/breaking/15717556/woodside-defamation-dispute-resolved/. Blitt, R 2011, The Bottom up Journey of â€Å"Defamation of Religion† from Muslim States to the United Nations, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, London. Communications Law Centre 2012, Free speech and defamation pre 2010, http://www.law.uts.edu.au/comslaw/factsheets/archivedfactsheets/freespeechanddefamationpre2010.html. Doyle, C 2005, Privacy Law in Australia. Federation Press, Sydney. Electronic Frontiers Australia 2006, Defamation Laws the Internet, https://www.efa.org.au/Issues/Censor/defamation.html#cases. Fryd, H 2012, Scandalous!: 50 Shocking Events You Should Know About, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, San Francisco. Greyson, D 2007, ‘GLBTQ content in comics/graphic novels for teens’, Collection Building, Vol. 26 No, 4, pp. 130 – 134. Hannabuss, S 2008, ‘Key Concepts in Law’, Library Review, Vol. 57 No. 7, pp. 554 – 555. Ha nnabuss, S 2010, ‘Understanding Privacy’, Library Review, Vol. 59 No. 7, pp. 562 – 563. Harpwood, V 2008, Modern Tort Law, Taylor Francis, London. Melkonian, H 2011, Defamation, Libel Tourism and the Speech Act of 2010: The First Amendment Colliding with the Common Law, Cambria Press, New York. Nzenza-Campbell, R 2004, ‘Essential Law for Information Professionals’, Library Management, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 239 – 239. O’Neill, N 2004, Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights Law in Australia, Federation Press, Sydney. Perry, P 1986, ‘The Law and Defamation: An Australian Case’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 9 – 11. Sawer, M 2009, Australia: The State of Democracy, Federation Press, Sydney. Sells, B 2006, ‘Recent developments in internet defamation law’, Journal of International Trade Law and Policy, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1 – 17. Scientific United Nations Educational 2011, Freedom of Connecti on, Freedom of Expression: The Changing Legal and Regulatory Ecology Shaping the Internet, UNESCO, Paris. Stoney, M 2003, ‘The problems of jurisdiction to e-commerce – some suggested strategies’, Logistics Information Management, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 74 – 80. Wyatt, A 2011, ‘Copyright concerns triggered by web 2.0 uses’, Reference Services Review, Vol. 39 No, 2, pp. 303 – 317. Footnotes 1 H. Stuart 2008, ‘Key Concepts in Law’, Library Review, Vol. 57 No. 7, pp. 554 – 555. 2 S. Berkley 2006, ‘Recent developments in internet defamation law’, Journal of International Trade Law and Policy, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 1 – 17. 3 B. Robert 2011, The Bottom up Journey of â€Å"Defamation of Religion† from Muslim States to the United Nations, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, London. 4 Peter 1986, p. 56. 5 Communications Law Centre 2012, Free speech and defamation pre 2010, http://www.law.uts.edu.au/comslaw/fac tsheets/archivedfactsheets/freespeechanddefamationpre2010.html. 6 Communications Law Centre 2012, p. 1. 7 O. Nick 2004, Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights Law in Australia, Federation Press, Sydney. 8 P. Peter 1986, ‘The Law and Defamation: An Australian Case’, Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 9 – 11. 9 D. Carolyn 2005, Privacy Law in Australia. Federation Press. 10 S. Mark 2003, ‘The problems of jurisdiction to e-commerce – some suggested strategies’, Logistics Information Management, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 74 – 80. 11 Electronic Frontiers Australia 2006, Defamation Laws the Internet, https://www.efa.org.au/Issues/Censor/defamation.html#cases. 12 W. Anna 2011, ‘Copyright concerns triggered by web 2.0 uses’, Reference Services Review, Vol. 39 No, 2, pp. 303 – 317. 13 S. Marian 2009, Australia: The State of Democracy, Federation Press, Sydney. 14 H. Vincent 2008, Modern Tort Law, Taylor Francis, London. 15 N. Raviro 2004, ‘Essential Law for Information Professionals’, Library Management, Vol. 25 No. 4, pp. 239 – 239. 16 Communications Law Centre 2012, p. 1. 17 Agencies 2012, Google fined in Australia defamation case, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia-pacific/2012/11/20121112521157975.html. 18 B. Amanda 2012, Woodside defamation dispute ‘resolved,’ http://au.news.yahoo.com/thewest/a/-/breaking/15717556/woodside-defamation-dispute-resolved/. 19 H. Stuart 2010, ‘Understanding Privacy’, Library Review, Vol. 59 No. 7, pp. 562 – 563. 20 F. Hallie 2012, Scandalous!: 50 Shocking Events You Should Know About, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, San Fransisco. 21 G. Devon 2007, ‘GLBTQ content in comics/graphic novels for teens’, Collection Building, Vol. 26 No, 4, pp. 130 – 134. 22 Scientific United Nations Educational 2011, Freedom of Connection, Freedom of Expression: The Changing Legal and Regulatory Ecology Shaping the Inte rnet, UNESCO, Paris. 23 M. Harry 2011, Defamation, Libel Tourism and the Speech Act of 2010: The First Amendment Colliding with the Common Law, Cambria Press, New York. This research paper on Law in the Information Age 2.0 was written and submitted by user Aryana H. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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